Jewish Presence & City States

Numerous Jewish kingdoms did not exist throughout the Middle East and Mesopotamia. Instead, Jewish political autonomy outside of the Levant (the area of ancient Israel and Judea) was concentrated in a few specific locations and time periods.

The main historical Jewish political entities were the ancient Israelite and Judean kingdoms in the Levant. However, several other Jewish states and self-governed communities rose and fell in different parts of the Middle East and surrounding regions.

Jewish states in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq)

Adiabene (c. 30–115 CE): This was an ancient kingdom in Mesopotamia, with its capital at Arbil, whose royal family converted to Judaism in the 1st century CE. While the majority of the population was not Jewish, its rulers were Jewish for a period of time.

Nehardea (18–33 CE): A temporary, autonomous Jewish state was established in the city of Nehardea in Babylonia. Two Jewish brothers, Anilai and Asinai, led a revolt against the Parthian Empire and ruled the city for about 15 years.

Mahoza (495–502 CE): In the 6th century, the Jewish exilarch Mar-Zutra II led a brief rebellion against the Sasanian Persian Empire and established a politically independent state in Mahoza for seven years.

Jewish kingdom in Yemen (Arabian Peninsula)

Himyarite Kingdom (c. 390–525 CE): During the 4th and 5th centuries, a number of Himyarite kings in ancient Yemen converted to Judaism. Under King Dhu Nuwas, Judaism became the state religion. The kingdom was eventually conquered by a Christian coalition from Ethiopia.

Jewish communities in the Arabian Peninsula

Jewish tribes of the Khaybar (Pre-628 CE): A number of Jewish tribes lived in the oasis of Khaybar, located in the Arabian Peninsula (modern-day Saudi Arabia). They were known for their advanced agriculture. Notable tribes included the Banu Nadir and Banu Qurayza, who lived there until the rise of Islam.

Other notable Jewish kingdoms

Khazaria (c. 8th–10th century CE): This was a major Jewish kingdom in Eastern Europe, not the Middle East. It is included here for context. The Khazar kingdom, located between the Black and Caspian seas, converted to Judaism in the 8th century. It played a major role in regional politics for several centuries.